Historically known uses of plant taxa recovered from these excavations have
been compiled from several sources, primarily Kuhnlein and Turner (1991), King
(1984), Deam (1929, 1940), and Little (1980). Densmore (1974) and Gilmore (1991)
are also excellent sources, but, since their work is included in King and, occasionally,
Kuhnlein and Turner, it has not been directly consulted for this compilation.
This appendix is meant as a brief introduction and is not a substitue for the
excellent sources from which it is drawn.
Nut mast
Hickory (Carya spp.) The English word "hickory" reflects its derivation from pawcohiccora, an Algonkian term for the oily food removed from pounded kernels steeped in boiling water. Hickory nut meat is high in fat and protein. The nutshells make good fuel and preserve well archaeologically. Yellow dye can be made from the inner bark of C. ovata, which grows in this region. The meats were probably stored in the nutshell over winter.
Walnut (Juglans nigra)
Butternut (Juglans cinera) J. nigra husks can be used to make a black dye, J. cinera to make a yellow dye. Nutritionally, both are comparable to hickories, but the skin surrounding these nutmeats means that they can't be crushed and boiled as easily. (The skin clings to nutmeats and make them taste bitter.) Butternuts are said to become rancid quickly and so were probably not stored.
Hazelnut (Corylus spp.) Nutmeats are nutritionally comparable to the oily nuts of the hickory/walnut family. Hazelnut is a shrub, not a tree, and grows in more open areas or at the edges of woodlands. C. cornuta has a husk of sorts, and this may have been preserved archaeologically at 12 Jo 5. Hazelnut is the earliest of the Indiana nuts and is harvested from August through October. In addition to its use as a food, hazelnut was also used as a poultice (by the Ojibwa) and to treat worms (Menominee). Its stems were used for baskets and brushes and to make a black dye by the Ojibwa.
Acorn (Quercus spp.) Acorn is a starchy, not an oily nut. Processing is required to remove tannins before eating. The shell is thinner and more fragile than hickory, walnut or hazelnut and so is less likely to preserve archaeologically.
Chestnut (Castanea dentata) Chestnut meats are similar to those of acorn, with which it shares a botanical family designation. Chestnut shell is even thinner than acorn shell, which may, in part, account for its rarity in archaeological assemblages. Like oaks, is chestnut is a "gregarious" tree, meaning that it can thrive in stands.
Sumac (Rhus spp.) Sumac's rather dry fruits were often boiled to make a lemonade-like drink, but they were (and are) also eaten raw. The fruits are high in vitamins A and C. The bark and foliage were used by early Europeans in tanning hides. The peeled shoots are eaten raw in spring. Sumac has many medicinal and dye uses. Its leaves were sometimes smoked.
Bramble/Blackberry/Raspberry/Huckleberry, etc. (Rubus spp.) The fruits of all these plants, which hybridize easily, can be dried or preserved in fat. The fresh shoots are also eaten raw, after peeling.
Blueberry/deerberry/farkelberry/cranberry (Vaccinium spp.) Cranberries are known today only from northern Indiana counties but may have had a more southern distribution during the neo-boreal climactic event. Other members of the genus are commonly found in south central Indiana. Berries are eaten fresh, dried or preserved in fat. The roots and bark of these plants also have medicinal uses. A comb-like wooden tool was used historically for harvesting the berries.
Pawpaw (Asimina triloba) The fleshy fruit of this understory tree ripens in September and October but is best harvested only after the first frost. The tree is found in beech/maple woods and also on lakes. Pawpaw bark fiber was used by the Menominee and Potawatomie for weaving bags.
Grape (itis spp.) Grape vines prefer dry, sandy, mediacid soil. Some species prefer the open, others more shaded areas. Grape fruits are eaten fresh or dried. The stems were used for cordage and sap from the plant was used as a beverage. Tea made from grape twigs was used for medicine.
Plum (Prunus americana) Plum fruits were eaten fresh or dried. Sometimes the dried fruit was powdered and used as an ingredient in stews. Roots of the plum tree have medicinal uses. The fruit is available in August and September. The tree is distributed in local colonies or in low ground along streams or in forests.
Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) Berries and other parts of this plant are often cited as poisonous and to be avoided (King 1984:139, Kuhnlein and Turner 1991:219). Deam, however, notes that "They are not as poisonous as some people think." (1940:434), an observation that accords well with local wisdom here in Bloomington. All authorities agree that young shoots may be cooked and eaten. The red berries are also used to make dye.
Elderberry (Sambucus spp.) Berries of this plant, which ripen in late June, are eaten raw, dried or cooked into jam. In Canada, they are harvested with long, hooked poles. The berries are small and seedy. Sometimes, whole berry clusters are pit-cooked or boiled intact, then the edible juice and pulp is sucked off, and everything else discarded.
Hawthorn (Cratageus spp.) Fruit of this understory tree ripens in October. The dry, seedy fruits are eaten fresh or dried. Medicinally, it is a cure for diarrhea. Dried berries of C. douglasii are said not to keep well, but Ojibwa and Iroquois peoples dried them for winter use. Hawthorn roots and bark have medicinal uses and the thorns are used as needles. "Bark included by the Ojibwa in a hunting medicine smoked to attract deer." (King 1984:150)
Chenopodium(Chenopodium spp.) Both the greens and seeds (technically, fruits) of this weedy annual are edible.
Wild bean (Strophostyles helvola) This weedy plant thrives in disturbed areas. Its seeds and tubers are both eaten.
Vervain (Verbena spp.) The seeds (technically, achenes) of this plant were eaten by some native groups. A tea made from the plant's root was used by the Menominee to clear cloudy urine.
Maygrass (Phalaris caroliniana) The seeds of the weedy grass are edible, and it was cultivated from early woodland times. Deam does not include it as a species native to Indiana and so the few seeds present on sites in this report may represent the descendants of escapees from cultivation in middle or late woodland times.
Mannagrass (Glyceria sp.) This grass grows on the borders of ponds, and in swampy places and marshes. Its seeds were eaten in the west and the roots have medicinal uses.
Grama grass (Bouteloua curtipendula) This species is the only native species of gramma grass that grows outside the western U.S. and is transcontinental. In Indiana, it is found in open places, especially in sandy soil (Deam 1929).
Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) Deam reports one variety of this important economic species growing as far south as Bartholomew County (Deam 1929:223).
Purslane (Portulaca oleraceae) The greens of this plant were eaten by Natives and early settlers alike. Despite reports to the contrary, it is native to North America.
Smartweed/knotweed (Polygonum spp.) Leaves, roots, and shoots of this genus are edible. The early leaves are eaten raw. Some species have medicinal use as herbal teas. The flowers were used by Ojibwa peoples in smoking, as hawthorn.
Greenbriar (Smilax sp.) Shoots, rootstock and fruits of this plant were eaten by southeastern groups. Its roots have medicinal uses.
False Solomon's-seal (Smilacina sp.) Greens, rhizomes and berries of these species are all eaten by some Canadian groups; others did not consider them fit for human consumption. King (1984:64) notes the use of Smilacina roots for medicinal purposes. Both Smilacina and Smilax are members of the lily family, and the similarity to asparagus is noted by King (1984) and Kuhnlein and Turner's (1991) native informants.
Morning glory (Convolvus sp.) Morningglory roots were eaten in times of famine. (The plant is a member of the sweet potato family.) The roots also have medicinal uses.
Spurge (Euphorbia sp.) According to King (1984), this weedy plant has unspecified medicinal uses.
Pursh (Scrophularia sp.) Pursh roots were used by the Meskwaki for medicine.
Wild geranium (Geranium sp.) Kuhnlein and Turner note that leaves of one species (G. viscosissium ) are kept in food storage bags, presumably as a preservative. Roots of some wild geraniums were used by many groups for medicine.
Bladderwort (Utricularia sp.) Bladderwort roots are reported to have medicinal uses.
Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) Leaves, fruit, roots and bark of the tulip poplar have medicinal uses.
Bedstraw (Galium spp.) Bedstraw seeds are burs and the entire plant clings to clothing, skin and fur, so the appearance of bedstraw seeds in archaeological botanical assemblages may not reflect human use but rather humans trying to dispose of unwanted plant materials. King, however, notes that an herbal tea made from the plant does have medicinal uses.
Tick-trefoil (Desmodium sp.) Like bedstraw, tick-trefoil clings to clothing, skin and fur. It, too, may represent an accidental inclusion in archaeological assemblages.
Bulrush (Scirpus sp.) This wetlands plant is not included in any of the sources consulted for this appendix.
Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica) The fruit of this dogwood relative ripens "in autumn" (Deam 1940:277). No documented uses have been found for the fruit. Its wood was used by Ojibwa for axe handles, mauls, war clubs (King 1984:135).